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Deciphering Coin Inscriptions from 4th Century AD
When considering a newly-cleaned coin, there are certain features that serve as good starting points in determining the correct attribution. Ancient Roman coins have tremendous variance in their themes over the centuries, and yet certain things remained constant for over seven centuries of the Empire's existence.
All ancient Roman coins are, or were designed to be, round. Though this may seem silly to mention, not all cultures used round coins, so this is a logical first observation. Nearly every Roman coin has a portrait of an Emperor or other important Roman on one side of it. If you are very knowledgeable in ancient Roman numismatics, the portrait alone may be enough to identify the person depicted. Even so, a few coins were minted for the honor of a past ruler by that ruler's successor. Coins were also often minted for a new ruler before the celators in the outlying provinces had a clear idea of what the ruler
looked like. In those instances, the old ruler's face may have been used with a new inscription.
That brings us to the best way to correctly attribute a coin: by its legends. Legends, or inscriptions, were placed on nearly every Roman coin and told about the ruler under whose authority the coin was issued. With even fewer exceptions, the legends were inscribed with the base of the letters inward, or to put it another way, with the tops of the letters along the outside edge of the coin. So, with a little persistence and a general idea of what to look for, one has a fair chance of attributing even coins with badly-worn legends and portraits.
Before beginning, it is good to understand a few things about the format of ancient Roman coin inscriptions. One of the first things to note is that there are seldom ever spaces between the letters. Equally important is the fact that abbreviations were used extensively. The abbreviations and absence of spaces can be a bit confusing at first, but as you learn what the common abbreviated inscriptions are you'll quickly become proficient at deciphering the legends on your coins.
Let's look at a common coin and it's inscription:
All ancient Roman coins are, or were designed to be, round. Though this may seem silly to mention, not all cultures used round coins, so this is a logical first observation. Nearly every Roman coin has a portrait of an Emperor or other important Roman on one side of it. If you are very knowledgeable in ancient Roman numismatics, the portrait alone may be enough to identify the person depicted. Even so, a few coins were minted for the honor of a past ruler by that ruler's successor. Coins were also often minted for a new ruler before the celators in the outlying provinces had a clear idea of what the ruler
looked like. In those instances, the old ruler's face may have been used with a new inscription.
That brings us to the best way to correctly attribute a coin: by its legends. Legends, or inscriptions, were placed on nearly every Roman coin and told about the ruler under whose authority the coin was issued. With even fewer exceptions, the legends were inscribed with the base of the letters inward, or to put it another way, with the tops of the letters along the outside edge of the coin. So, with a little persistence and a general idea of what to look for, one has a fair chance of attributing even coins with badly-worn legends and portraits.
Before beginning, it is good to understand a few things about the format of ancient Roman coin inscriptions. One of the first things to note is that there are seldom ever spaces between the letters. Equally important is the fact that abbreviations were used extensively. The abbreviations and absence of spaces can be a bit confusing at first, but as you learn what the common abbreviated inscriptions are you'll quickly become proficient at deciphering the legends on your coins.
Let's look at a common coin and it's inscription:
Above, we see a coin from one of the most notoriously well-known Roman Emperor: Nero. The lines have been placed in between the abbreviated words of the inscription. Here is what each portion of the inscription means:
NERO: Easy enough… his name!
CLAVD: Perhaps less obvious than NERO but also part of his name. This stands for Claudius… the Romans had no letter "U" in their alphabet, so "V" can often be written as "U" today.
CAESAR: An Imperial title with its roots in the cognomen, or family name, of Julius Caesar. Adoption of this title was both an attempt to honor Julius Caesar and to add an air of legitimacy to the position . . . drawing from Julius Caesar's wide popularity.
AVG: For AVGVSTVS (Augustus), the highest authority in Rome. This title was first awarded by the Senate to Octavian (ruler 33BC-14AD).
GER: GERMANICVS, Ruler or Conqueror of Germania
PM: PONTIFEX MAXIMVS, or supreme priest (literally a "bridge-maker" between the gods and people) . . . signifying that the ruler is also the chief priest of Rome.
TR P: TRIBVNICIA POTESTAS, Power or Potency of the Tribunate. This title was also to add legitimacy to the ruler by in effect saying, "The Tribunate is all-powerful, alive and well, and approves this ruler".
IMP: IMPERATOR, essentially saying the ruler is the Commander-In-Chief of the armed forces. Also alludes to the ruler being a military hero.
PP: PATER PATRIAE, father of the country; could also designate PERPETVVS (Perpetuus) meaning "Lifetime appointee" (although this usage didn't come about until the time of Domitian)
So there you have it… The full title bestowed on Nero by this coin would read, "Caesar Augustus Nero Claudius, High Priest and Ruler of Rome and Germania,
Supreme Commander of the armies of Rome, the father of his country, leader of the
Triumvirate for as long as he shall live."
NERO: Easy enough… his name!
CLAVD: Perhaps less obvious than NERO but also part of his name. This stands for Claudius… the Romans had no letter "U" in their alphabet, so "V" can often be written as "U" today.
CAESAR: An Imperial title with its roots in the cognomen, or family name, of Julius Caesar. Adoption of this title was both an attempt to honor Julius Caesar and to add an air of legitimacy to the position . . . drawing from Julius Caesar's wide popularity.
AVG: For AVGVSTVS (Augustus), the highest authority in Rome. This title was first awarded by the Senate to Octavian (ruler 33BC-14AD).
GER: GERMANICVS, Ruler or Conqueror of Germania
PM: PONTIFEX MAXIMVS, or supreme priest (literally a "bridge-maker" between the gods and people) . . . signifying that the ruler is also the chief priest of Rome.
TR P: TRIBVNICIA POTESTAS, Power or Potency of the Tribunate. This title was also to add legitimacy to the ruler by in effect saying, "The Tribunate is all-powerful, alive and well, and approves this ruler".
IMP: IMPERATOR, essentially saying the ruler is the Commander-In-Chief of the armed forces. Also alludes to the ruler being a military hero.
PP: PATER PATRIAE, father of the country; could also designate PERPETVVS (Perpetuus) meaning "Lifetime appointee" (although this usage didn't come about until the time of Domitian)
So there you have it… The full title bestowed on Nero by this coin would read, "Caesar Augustus Nero Claudius, High Priest and Ruler of Rome and Germania,
Supreme Commander of the armies of Rome, the father of his country, leader of the
Triumvirate for as long as he shall live."
Small wonder they used abbreviations! To see a full listing of the common inscriptions on Roman coins, I recommend these websites:
David Sear, noted author of one of the most commonly cited references on Roman coins, has a brief but informative page at: http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html
Barry and Darling Ancient Coins have an extensive reference online that shows many common and not-so-common inscriptions:
http://www.ancient-times.com/info/roman_inscriptions.html
A good reference by author Doug Smith exists on the Ancient Coin Mart site:
http://www.ancientcoinmarket.com/ds/abbreviation/1.html
David Sear, noted author of one of the most commonly cited references on Roman coins, has a brief but informative page at: http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html
Barry and Darling Ancient Coins have an extensive reference online that shows many common and not-so-common inscriptions:
http://www.ancient-times.com/info/roman_inscriptions.html
A good reference by author Doug Smith exists on the Ancient Coin Mart site:
http://www.ancientcoinmarket.com/ds/abbreviation/1.html
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